Research impact: Mental Rehearsal for Health and Elite Sport

Research summary

Since 2013 Manchester Met researchers have been promoting and disseminating PETTLEP, a model of mental rehearsal for health and elite sport that has now been adopted by sports psychologists across the world.

Building on work published in 2001, the researchers have focused on validating the model through empirical research, with 23 linked papers published to date.

PETTLEP stands for Physical, Environment, Task, Timing, Learning, Emotion and Perspective, the behavioural elements linked to the cognitive neuroscience of motor performance.

The model was the first in sport psychology to advocate a highly individualised approach. A key aspect is the association of the image with the physical characteristics and experiences of the task, involving a multi-sensory approach, use of real environmental cues, sports clothing and implements.

Research impact

The PETTLEP model builds on a paper published in 2001 by professors Paul Holmes and Dave Collins at Manchester Met, which drew on research in neuroscience and cognitive psychology to create the first theoretically and empirically based model to guide imagery interventions. It has become the third most-cited article in the history of the Journal of Applied Sport Psychology.

Impact in universities

PETTLEP is taught on almost all undergraduate level sport psychology, sport and exercise science, and sports coaching courses in the UK. It features in many postgraduate taught courses, and also on the curriculum at a minimum of 24 international universities in 17 countries, including in Australia, Canada, Belgium, Italy, Netherlands and the USA.

All key international textbooks in the sport and exercise psychology field reference the PETTLEP model and advocate it as an evidence-based way of structuring and delivering motor imagery.

Applications in elite sport

Prof Holmes and Dr Dave Smith showed that PETTLEP-based imagery significantly improved the putting performance of county-level golfers by 29%. Smith also showed that PETTLEP improved golf bunker shot performance of national-level golfers by 8%, and 22% when combined with physical practice. At the same time, Holmes was applying these findings by using PETTLEP interventions for the first time with England Golf and European Tour professionals.

Smith further demonstrated 15% and 36% improvements in performance of novice hockey players and youth gymnasts, respectively.

British Canoeing embraced PETTLEP as early as 2006 when it was described in its coaching handbook. Today, the model is used to support athletes, including younger paddlers on the talent programme, to control performance anxiety.

Use outside of sports

Further research has found the model to be effective in enhancing nursing students’ performance of practical skills, improving the accuracy of their blood pressure measurement by 13% compared to a control group.

It is also used increasingly as a psychological tool in both ballet and contemporary dance training.

Research outputs

Academic papers

• Wakefield, C and Smith, D (2011) From strength to strength: A single-case design study of PETTLEP imagery frequency Sport Psychologist 25(3):305-320

• Wright, C, Hogard, E, Ellis, R, Smith, D and Kelly, C (2008) Effect of PETTLEP imagery training on performance of nursing skills: pilot study Journal of Advanced Nursing 63(3):259-265

• Smith, D, Wright, CJ, Cantwell, C (2008). Beating the bunker: The effect of PETTLEP imagery on golf bunker shot performance Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport 79(3):385-391

• Smith, D, Wright, C, Allsopp, A and Westhead, H (2007) It’s all in the mind: PETTLEP-based imagery and sports performance Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 19(1), 80-92

• Smith, D and Holmes, P (2004) The effect of imagery modality on golf putting performance Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology 26(3):385-395

• Holmes, PS and Collins, DJ (2001) The PETTLEP approach to motor imagery: A functional equivalence model for sport psychologists Journal of Applied Sport Psychology 13(1):60-83